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 ====== Neurogenic dysphagia ====== ====== Neurogenic dysphagia ======
-<alert type="warning" icon="glyphicon glyphicon-hand-down">This article is a stub. Please help us improve it</alert+<WRAP center round box 60%> 
-“Paediatric dysphagia” is not related to a specific diagnosis but refers to any disturbance of the normal swallow sequence in infants and children, as difficulties in +THIS ARTICLE IS BEING EDITED 
-transporting a bolus from the oral cavity to the back of +</WRAP> 
-the tongue or moving food into the oesophagus, compromising safety and adequacy of nutritional intake 6-10[(cite:arvedson2002>Arvedson JC. Feeding with craniofacial anomalies. In: Arvedson JC, Brodsky LB, editors. Pediatric swallowing and feeding: assessment and management. Second edition. Albany, NY: Singular Publishing Group; 2002. pp. 527-61)][(cite:miller1999>Miller AJ. The neuroscientific principles of swallowing and dysphagia. San Diego: Singular Publishing Group; 1999. pp. 100-1.)][(cite:chantal2015>Chantal L. Development of suck and swallow mechanisms in infants. Ann Nutr Metab 2015;66:7-14. https://doi. + 
-org/10.1159/000381361.)][(cite:groher2010>Groher ME, Crary MA. Dysphagia: clinical management in adults and children. Second edition. Maryland Heights, MO: Mosby/Elsevier; 2010.)][(cite:miller2003>)][(cite:dodrill2015>Dodrill P, Gosa MM. Pediatric dysphagia: physiology, assessment, and management. Ann Nutr Metab 2015;66(Suppl 5):24-31.https://doi.org/10.1159/000381372.)].+ 
 +“Paediatric dysphagia” refers to any disturbance of the normal swallow sequence in infants and children, as difficulties in transporting a bolus from the oral cavity to the back of the tongue or moving food into the oesophagus, compromising safety and adequacy of nutritional intake[(cite:arvedson2002>Arvedson JC. Feeding with craniofacial anomalies. In: Arvedson JC, Brodsky LB, editors. Pediatric swallowing and feeding: assessment and management. Second edition. Albany, NY: Singular Publishing Group; 2002. pp. 527-61)][(cite:miller1999>Miller AJ. The neuroscientific principles of swallowing and dysphagia. San Diego: Singular Publishing Group; 1999. pp. 100-1.)][(cite:chantal2015>Chantal L. Development of suck and swallow mechanisms in infants. Ann Nutr Metab 2015;66:7-14. https://doi.org/10.1159/000381361.)][(cite:groher2010>Groher ME, Crary MA. Dysphagia: clinical management in adults and children. Second edition. Maryland Heights, MO: Mosby/Elsevier; 2010.)][(cite:miller2003>)][(cite:dodrill2015>Dodrill P, Gosa MM. Pediatric dysphagia: physiology, assessment, and management. Ann Nutr Metab 2015;66(Suppl 5):24-31.https://doi.org/10.1159/000381372.)].
  
  
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 (VFSS) is a radiographic procedure that provides a dynamic view of the swallowing process and is frequently considered to be definitive evaluation for objective assessment of dysphagia in paediatric patients. (VFSS) is a radiographic procedure that provides a dynamic view of the swallowing process and is frequently considered to be definitive evaluation for objective assessment of dysphagia in paediatric patients.
  
 +
 +Pre- and post-natal development
 +of swallowing mechanisms
 +Through understanding of the development of feeding
 +and swallowing skills, it is possible to shed light on how
 +and why infants may demonstrate signs of oropharyngeal dysphagia.
 +During embryologic life, between the 4th and the 7th
 +weeks of gestation, many processes relevant to swallowing development take place.
 +After the incorporation of the endoderm of the yolk sac
 +into the embryo to form the primordial gut and rupture 
 +G. Lo Re et al.
 +280
 +of pharyngeal membrane to form primitive choanae,
 +separation of oesophagus and trachea from the primitive
 +foregut is essential to avoid liquid aspiration during their
 +passage through oesophagus 11.
 +Thereafter, the foetal period (from the 9th week of gestation to birth) is characterised by continuous differentiation of tissues and organs 11 and by a dramatic development of swallowing, sucking and oral sensorimotor
 +function; this latter depends from brainstem and cerebral
 +system development and is the fundamental system for
 +correct functioning of the former 5 12.
 +Sensory cranial nerve input to the brain stem swallowing
 +centre depends on the V, VII, IX and X cranial nerves
 +while primary motor cranial nerve output is provided
 +primarily by the V, VII, IX, X and XII nerves and by the
 +cervical C1-C3 nerves 5
 +. Correct development of cranial
 +nerves is mandatory for adequate swallowing. Myelinisation of the roots of some cranial nerves is seen during
 +the 20th-24th weeks of gestation, and during the 35th-38th
 +weeks the nervous system matures sufficiently to carry
 +out integrative functions as nipple feeding 13.
 +Moreover, other cerebral regions are implicated in sensory and motor system development such as the nucleus
 +tractus solitarius, nucleus ambiguous, dorsal motor nucleus, hypoglossal nucleus and cerebral cortex 14.
 +Foetal swallowing is important to regulate amniotic fluid
 +volume and composition, as well as maturation of the
 +foetal gastrointestinal tract and renal foetal system 5 15.
 +Oral motor skills also develop within a system that
 +changes during post-natal life both in structural growth
 +and neurological control: the successful use of the suckle
 +reflex masters suckling and its coordination with breathing, the child’s motor function (mostly involving his/her
 +tongue) masters the stabilisation of the jaw 16 17.
 +The swallowing anatomic components of infants are different from adult ones. In the infant, the oral cavity is
 +smaller and teeth have not erupted. We can also typically find a smoother tongue and harder palate. The larynx
 +and hyoid bone are higher in the neck to the oral cavity,
 +while in adults the larynx goes down to a lower area in
 +the neck. The epiglottis is almost attached to the soft
 +palate so that the larynx is open to the nasopharynx 18.
 +The proper integration of the respiratory and feeding
 +functions is mandatory because during feeding the time
 +left for safe air exchange is reduced, minute ventilation
 +is decreased, exhalation is prolonged and inhalation
 +shortened. Thus, proper maturation and practice of the
 +above functions during the first years of life enhances
 +oral motor patterns, and this latter influences feeding
 +performance 16.
 +Swallowing requires both voluntary and involuntary
 +actions and can be summed up into four phases (oral,
 +triggering of swallowing reflex, pharyngeal and oesophageal) that involve structures and muscles of the nose,
 +mouth, throat, chest, abdomen and digestive tract 19. The
 +oral phase consists of both preparatory and transit phases. During the preparatory phase, food and/or liquid are
 +prepared in the oral cavity by suckling or mastications in
 +order to form a bolus that, in the transit phase, is moved
 +posteriorly through the oral cavity. During the pharyngeal phase, bolus is transported through the pharynx, and
 +then through the cervical and thoracic oesophagus into
 +the stomach during the oesophageal phase 11 20.
 +In neonates, the swallowing process is reflexive and involuntary and each of the abovementioned phases may
 +mature at different times and/or rates. Later in infancy,
 +the oral phase is voluntary and triggering of the swallow
 +reflex is generally an involuntary activity, but it can be
 +commanded voluntarily, while the pharyngeal and oesophageal phases remain involuntary 6 11.
 +A child affected by chronic dysphagia will likely show
 +delayed progression of normal feeding skills, recurrent
 +respiratory disease and, consequently, growth deficiency. Aspiration is one of the abnormalities that may be
 +encountered as an anomaly in the development during
 +post-natal life and consists of passage of ingested material, refluxed contents, or oral secretions through the
 +vocal folds into the lower respiratory tract. Recurrent or
 +chronic aspiration is a serious risk factor in the paediatric population, resulting in infection, chronic lung disease and even death.
 +The physiological avoidance of aspiration depends not
 +only on anatomical separation of respiratory and digestive tracts in embryologic life, but also on central neural processing. Fluids contacting the laryngeal mucosa
 +evoke laryngeal chemoreflexes 21 resulting in many possible responses such as rapid swallowing, apnoea, laryngeal constriction, hypertension and bradycardia, or
 +cough; as the infant matures the formers reflexes (rapid
 +swallowing and apnoea) become less probable, while
 +cough and laryngeal constriction become more prominent 22. However, sex-related differences have been demonstrated between early oral, tongue, pharyngeal and
 +laryngeal motor activities: oral and upper airway skills
 +emerge earlier in females and the latter (pharyngeal and
 +laryngeal movements) are less rhythmic and complete in
 +males throughout the second semester 23.
 +Paediatric swallowing disorders: aetiology
 +An altered swallow sequence may compromise safety,
 +efficiency, or adequacy of nutritional intake. Because 
 +
 +
 +swallowing and breathing share a common space in the
 +pharynx, swallowing difficulties can have a bad effect
 +on pulmonary health in addition to impairing nutritional
 +intake  24. Swallowing disorders occur in approximately
 +1% of children in the general population.
 +Swallowing disorders in the paediatric population are
 +often different compared to those responsible for adult
 +dysphagia. Many aetiologies should be kept in mind during differential diagnoses 11 25-31 (Table I).
 +Clinical assessment
 +Before exposing the paediatric patient to radiation during videofluoroscopic swallowing study (VFSS), accurate clinical assessment should be made by taking
 +clinical history, evaluating sensorimotor function of the
 +anatomical structure for swallowing and directly observing the child during a meal 32.
 +A clinical evaluation of feeding should involve a speech
 +language pathologist (SLP) with experience in feeding
 +disorders during an individual session or during a clinical group session by a feeding team 20.
 +In order to assess different potential causes of peadiatric
 +dysphagia, the clinician has to focus on physiologicalmedical disorders, behavioural disturbances and developmental issues 20.
 +Medical disorders may be chronic, temporary, or progressive and affect many systems related to swallowing including the respiratory, nervous and/or metabolic
 +systems, digestive tract and craniofacial structures. Behavioural disorders must be considered as a possible
 +contributing cause of dysphagia: the patient may adopt
 +aggressive or unfit behaviour, refuse to be fed or have little motivation to engage in feeding-based activities. The
 +paediatric patient may also develop inadequate skills
 +for swallowing because of privation of correct practice
 +for acquisition of mature skills or as a consequence of
 +a medical or behavioural disorder. Schedule for OralMotor Assessment (SOMA) and the Dysphagia Disorder
 +Survey  are two of the more common assessment tools
 +that the clinician can use to examine swallowing function in the paediatric population  33  34. Nevertheless, it
 +must be said that often clinicians do not use formal assessment tools when evaluating feeding skills in children
 +with suspected dysphagia. Several studies also highlight
 +the inaccuracy of clinical evaluation alone in predicting
 +airway involvement, given that silent aspiration is not
 +uncommon in the paediatric population. When altered
 +swallowing function is suspected in the paediatric patient, instrumental assessment should be requested to
 +confirm the presence of dysphagia and detect aspiration
 +risk 11.
 +Videofluoroscopic swallowing study
 +VFSS is considered to be the best instrumental evaluation for objective swallowing assessment, and not just in
 +paediatric patients 20 35-37.
 +
 +
 +It allows concurrent visualisation of the oral, pharyngeal
 +and oesophageal stages of swallowing  9
 + and is essential to confirm airway protection adequacy and exclude
 +swallowing dysfunction after clinical evaluation of feeding 38.
 +Therefore, VFSS provides crucial diagnostic information 39 and leads to a reduction in chest infections risk by
 +detecting clinically “silent” tracheal aspiration (aspiration before, during, or after swallowing in the absence
 +of cough or visible signs of choking)  40 41, especially in
 +neurologically-based feeding disorders.
 +Thus, the indications for VFSS 20 38 in the paediatric patient comprise:
 +• observation of oral preparatory, oral transit, pharyngeal and/or oesophageal phases of swallowing;
 +• patient hostility towards endoscopic examination;
 +• suspected or diagnosed anatomical anomalies of nasal cavities, oropharyngeal tract or upper oesophageal
 +structures that are a hindrance to endoscopic evaluation;
 +• suspected swallowing disorder as a contributory
 +cause of a persistent feeding refusal or a respiratory
 +disorder;
 +• planning treatment to improve swallowing efficiency
 +and reduce the risk of aspiration.
 +Contraindications for VFFS include:
 +• patients who have never fed orally;
 +• impossibility to adopt correct posture during the exam
 +because of medical instability, agitation or lethargy;
 +• allergies to barium/iodine contrast;
 +• patient who cannot be transferred to the radiology department 20.
 +Another commonly used instrumental evaluation of
 +swallowing for paediatric patients is Fiberoptic Endoscopic Evaluation of Swallowing (FEES)  20 37 42, which
 +a sensory testing of laryngeal adductor response (LAR)
 +can be added to (Fiberoptic Endoscopic Evaluation of
 +Swallowing and Sensory test or FEESST).
 +During FEES an endoscope allows observation of dynamical changes of the larynx and pharynx during the
 +pharyngeal phase of swallowing and passage of bolus.
 +FEES can be performed at the bedside and repeated in a
 +brief period and in different clinical conditions, so that it
 +should be considered a very valuable instrumental method in follow-up 42.
 +FEES, on the other hand, allows assessment of the pharyngeal phase only and make indirect considerations
 +about the oesophageal and oral phases; it is only acceptable for either very young children or for older cooperating children and is not very helpful to assess repeated
 +swallowing.
 +Therefore, the question about whether VFFS can be considered as the gold standard to assess swallowing disorders is still open. Studies have shown that both VFSS
 +and FEES have comparable sensitivity, specificity and
 +predictive abilities 43 44, and a valuable approach may include both examinations as complementary, when available.
 +Practical and radiological technique
 +VFSS is a fast radiographic procedure. During the exam,
 +barium contrast agents (administered at various consistencies – from solid to liquid – according to the situation)
 +or, if necessary, hydrosoluble no-ionic iodated agents
 +are transported in the oro-pharyngeal cavity and oesophagus, and the sequential phases of this passage are
 +captured in real time using fluoroscopy 45.
 +An optimal approach to the patient can be achieved
 +thanks to multidisciplinary management of the procedure by radiologist, radiographer and deglutologist 45-47.
 +Families have to be prepared for what to expect from
 +the procedure, and advised that for best execution of
 +the exam and cooperation of the children, it is advisable
 +to bring appetising foods to be mixed with the contrast
 +agent, familiar utensils and a seating system that children usually use during meals 20 37.
 +Moreover, in the radiology department there should be a
 +child-friendly environment, such as a fluoroscopy room
 +with visual distracters (toys, boxes of rewards) and a familiar caregiver 20 37.
 +At present there is not a unique protocol for VFSS in
 +infants, since the procedure is strongly influenced by
 +individual medical conditions, feeding modality, preferred food consistencies, age and size of the paediatric
 +patient 20 37 38.
 +Regarding the question of lack of a unique VFSS protocol, in 2013 the International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative (IDDSI)  48 was founded to develop
 +globally standardised terminology to refer to thickened
 +liquids and texture modified foods used for patients of
 +all ages affected by dysphagia.
 +During a consensus meeting, a first group of descriptors
 +of texture and flow behaviour were developed to propose
 +a framework to > 3,100 people in 57 countries around
 +the world, obtaining positive feedback. The final IDDSI
 +framework consists of levels from 0 to 7 including both
 +liquids and foods on a continuum and every level is identified by a number, colour codes and a text label. Level
 +1 (slightly thick liquids) has particular utility for paediatric patients, even if it cannot be always available in all
 +healthcare.
 +However, during VFSS barium sulphate powder is usu-
 +Swallowing evaluation with videofluoroscopy in the paediatric population
 +283
 +ally mixed with different textures of liquid, semi-solid
 +and solid food (as cookies or crackers) and administered
 +to the patient. As some authors suggest 49, one-half cup
 +of thin barium can be mixed either with 1½ teaspoons
 +of thickener to obtain a nectar consistency or with 1½
 +tablespoons thickener to create a honey-like texture.
 +Density of barium sulfate suspension is often expressed
 +in a weight/weight (w/w) ratio, which indicates the number of grams of active ingredient per 100 g of product;
 +otherwise, it is expressed in a weight/volume (w/v) ratio which expresses the number of grams of active ingredient per 100  mL of product  49. Varibar thin liquid
 +(40% w/v, after reconstitution; E-Z-EM Inc., Westbury,
 +NY) and E-Z-HD (98%  w/w; E-Z-EM Inc., Westbury,
 +NY) are barium sulphate suspensions commonly used
 +for VFSS.
 +Even though nectar and honey-like consistencies can be
 +created using thickener, several barium sulfate suspensions are commercially available such as Varibar® Thin
 +Liquid, Varibar® Nectar, Varibar® Honey, Varibar® Pudding 49. For infants (0-1 year), some authors 38 state that
 +the examination should start with liquids, as this texture
 +often results to be the prevailing one in an infants’ diet,
 +and disparate type of nipples with different flows can be
 +used 1 50.
 +In patients older than 1 year, it is possible to previously
 +evaluate their food and drink preferences 1
 +. However, the
 +use of the patient’s favourite food mixed with barium
 +may facilitate cooperation to accept other types of food,
 +resulting in a wider range of information. Finally, after
 +having started the study, the radiologist and the SLP may
 +change the volume and viscosity of the barium texture
 +on the basis of patient’s symptoms and signs detected 37.
 +The patient should not chew gum or eat for several hours
 +prior to VFSS  51 and if the child cannot autonomously
 +feed because of a gastrostomy or nasogastric tube (NG
 +tube), it is recommended  37 to take small tastes of the
 +foods for 1-2 weeks prior to the VFSS. When a NG tube
 +is in place, its removal is not necessary in most cases, as
 +swallowing evaluation can be performed anyway 52 and
 +having the tube repassed is a traumatic manoeuvre for
 +the paediatric patient 37.
 +Cleft lip and/or palate patients require adequate feeding
 +methods during the VFSS. A special need feeder is a oneway valve bottle designed for infants who have sucking
 +difficulties: it is activated by compression movements
 +alone, so the cleft lip and/or palate patient can overcome
 +the obstacle of sucking dysfunction during feeding 1
 +.
 +During VFSS, the presence of a family member who
 +feeds the paediatric patient should be recommended, especially in infants, using child preferred utensils, like the
 +baby’s own feeding bottle, thus contributing to make the
 +patient seat in a friendly feeding position to achieve the
 +optimal conditions for VFSS 20.
 +During the procedure, patient positioning depends on
 +his/her size, age and medical conditions  38. Babies, infants and children up to 3 years should be seated in usual
 +position in their own wheelchair or a preformed seat with
 +secure straps mounted on the X-ray equipment. When
 +the child size exceeds preformed seat dimensions, as the
 +fluoroscopy table is vertically positioned, the patient can
 +sit on a step set on the lower side of the table 37 51.
 +The child has to be primarily positioned in the lateral
 +view to assess oro-pharyngeal cavity, larynx and cervical oesophageal region. The radiologist activates the
 +fluoroscope for few seconds prior to the administration
 +of barium contrast-impregnated food or liquid and keeps
 +it on as long as the bolus reaches the cervical region
 +of oesophagus  45. During the oral phase, the radiologist must assess bolus containment before the swallow
 +(Fig. 1), the rhythmicity of jaw movements and coordination of tongue movements.
 +The lips, nasal cavity, cervical spine column and pharyngo-oesophageal segments are, respectively, in the anterior, superior, posterior and inferior limits of the field
 +of view 53 54.
 +The Antero-Posterior (A-P) view is not always routinely
 +obtained by clinicians, since the diagnostic contribution
 +
 +made by an A-P view essentially concerns assessment
 +of structural and functional symmetry and detection of
 +unilateral abnormalities of the pharyngeal wall, as is the
 +case with pharyngeal paresis or paralysis 45.
 +Milliampere (mA) and kilovolt (kV) settings are typically dependent on the patient’s age, height and weight.
 +For a 6-month-old to 5-year-old child, the usual mA and
 +kV settings are 58-60 kVp with 1-1.1 mA, while for a
 +10-year-old patient these are 62 kVp and 1.5 mA 37. As
 +several authors state, using a pulse rate of 30 pulses/sec
 +is essential to detect rapid aspiration and to recognise
 +any bolus flow event related to the oropharyngeal phase
 +of swallowing 45 55 56 (Fig. 2).
 +Interpreting results
 +During VFSS, assessment of swallowing consists in observing the orally preparatory, oral transit, pharyngeal
 +and oesophageal phases 20 37. Bolus formed during orally
 +preparatory phase is held inside the oral cavity and does
 +not move into the open larynx thanks to the base of the
 +tongue and soft palate which close the oral cavity posteriorly 20 57.
 +During the oral transit phase, an anterior-to-posterior elevation of tongue push the bolus posteriorly toward the
 +pharynx, so that pharyngeal reflex is triggered. Larynx
 +closes by contraction of the aryepiglottic folds.
 +The pharyngeal phase takes place in less than a second
 +and begins when bolus passes through the anterior faucial arch and reaches the posterior pharyngeal wall; bolus is then pushed toward the cricopharyngeal sphincter
 +by contraction of pharyngeal constrictor muscles. Spill
 +of bolus into the nasopharynx is prevented by elevation
 +of the soft palate and larynx closes true and false vocal
 +cords and aryepiglottic folds to block the way to trachea.
 +As the oesophageal phase begins, the cricopharyngeal
 +muscle relaxes and bolus moves through cervical and
 +thoracic oesophagus and into the stomach thanks to oesophageal peristalsis 57.
 +Deterioration in swallowing function can be demonstrated by several abnormalities such as delay in the
 +initiation of the swallowing reflex, residue of contrastimpregnated food and liquid, epiglottal undercoating,
 +penetration and aspiration 37.
 +The presence of aspiration is characterised by the entry of ingested material below the level of the true vocal folds into the trachea 58 and if aspiration occurs, the
 +material can enter the airway before, during and/or after
 +the pharyngeal swallow  53. When the bolus blocks the
 +patency of the airways a chocking event occurs, exposing infants to a life-threatening condition.
 +Penetration is present when bolus material enters the
 +laryngeal vestibule down to the level of the true vocal
 +folds, but it does not cross the vocal folds 11 (Fig. 3).
 +
 +
 +The Penetration-Aspiration Scale 59 is a widely employed
 +interval scale for a reliable quantification of penetration
 +and aspiration events observed during VFSS.
 +The final 8-point version of the scale is multidimensional since several types of behaviours are evaluated.
 +Contrast-material not entering the airway is scored  1,
 +while penetration can be scored from 2 to 5. Score 2 is
 +given if contrast material remains above the vocal folds
 +but no residue is visible, while score 3 is given if visible
 +residue remains. If contrast material contacts the vocal
 +folds but is ejected from the airway penetration this is
 +scored  4, while if there is no ejection of material and
 +residue is visible, penetration is scored 5.
 +Aspiration is a more severe event than penetration: it
 +can be scored from 6 to 8 according to whether aspirated material is partially or totally expelled from the
 +airway (score 6), subglottic residue is visible despite the
 +patient’s effort (score 7) or aspiration occurs without the
 +patient’s attempt to expel contrast material (score 8).
 +Another abnormality seen on VFSS is epiglottic undercoating which occurs when material penetrates underneath the epiglottis above the laryngeal vestibule 37.
 +Deteriorated swallowing can be also displayed by a
 +swallow reflex delayed more than 1 sec 37.
 +On VFSS some patients show a normal swallowing process in the first few swallows but, as feeding progresses,
 +abnormalities appear. On the other hand, certain patients
 +may have greater difficulty during first few swallows and,
 +as they become more organised, improve their function
 +with additional swallows. Thus, during the procedure,
 +multiple swallows have always to be examined 60. If during basic examination no symptoms appear, provocative
 +manoeuvres can be used to evoke swallowing abnormalities, always with caution, such as body position change,
 +always keeping in mind the patient’s individual history.
 +Protective and therapeutic manoeuvres, such as modifications regarding neck or body position, are available to
 +prevent aspiration and limit considerable risks deriving
 +from a sudden inability to breathe 37.
 +VFSS must be rapidly aborted when severe aspiration
 +occurs, oxygen level saturation drops, or if the child does
 +not respond to protective or therapeutic manoeuvres 37 51.
 +The procedure should end after having achieved all the
 +goals of the study, trying to minimize the radiation exposure with the maximum level of clinical and radiological
 +results 45 61.
 +Radioprotection issues
 +Videofluoroscopic analysis of swallowing is considered to be the best instrumental evaluation to objectively assess swallowing function after clinical feeding, confirming airway protection adequacy during the
 +event  20. However, there are limitations to the procedure such as cost, time constraints and, mostly, radiation exposure.
 +Although the radiation dose from VFSS is relatively
 +low, between 0.2 and 0.85  mSv  62-66 (for a chest x-ray
 +acquired in P-A the patient receives a radiation dose of
 +0.02 mSv)  67 any radiation from medical tests must be
 +minimised to comply with the “As Low As Reasonably
 +Achievable” principle 68. This is particularly true in the
 +paediatric population. Long-term effects of radiation are
 +increasingly acknowledged, particularly in infants, since
 +adverse effects of radiation exposure are known to be
 +age-dependent: children are more sensitive to radiationinduced cancer than adults and the radiogenic risk of developing a radiation-related cancer is 2-3 times higher
 +for a young child compared with an adult exposed to an
 +identical radiation dose  69-71. Therefore, optimisation of
 +the procedure is important to reduce the dose using registration or fluoroscopy with low exposure data, if possible, due to intrinsic high contrast differences between
 +barium and soft tissue. Also, specific age, weight protocols and diagnostic reference levels should be set within
 +each department for the different ages of patients 72-76. In
 +order to maintain a low dose, the radiologist should make
 +the timing of the fluoroscopy coincide with the oral and
 +pharyngeal phases of swallowing. In VFSS, fluoroscopy
 +time has been shown to be highly correlated with kerma
 +area product (KAP) values and is known as a practical
 +tool for monitoring patient radiation dose 77. Guidelines
 +have been adopted to limit radiation exposure times, but
 +multiple variables may influence the duration of the exam. In particular, factors influencing radiation exposure
 +time in VFSS include medical diagnosis category, swallowing impairment severity, the clinician’s experience
 +and use of a standardised protocol.
 +Conclusions
 +Feeding and swallowing disorders present in different
 +manners and the underlying aetiology may be difficult to
 +determine. An evaluation of clinical history and physical
 +examination may screen some abnormalities, but often
 +do not provide help in identifying the underlying cause
 +of feeding and swallowing disorders. VFSS is considered to be the best instrumental evaluation for complete
 +assessment from the oral to pharyngeal and oesophageal
 +phases. In addition, the procedure strongly contributes to
 +reducing the risk of chest infections by detecting clinically “silent” tracheal aspiration
 +
 +However, behavioural, structural and physiological disorders often coexist, complicating diagnosis and management.
 +For this reason, a multidisciplinary approach to diagnosis and management is helpful.
 ====== Diagnosis ====== ====== Diagnosis ======
 Children with dysphagia or respiratory problems possibly due to dysphagia, should be seen first by an ear, nose, and throat surgeon or gastroenterologist to exclude structural disorders of the neck, mouth, pharynx, larynx, and oesophagus.  Children with dysphagia or respiratory problems possibly due to dysphagia, should be seen first by an ear, nose, and throat surgeon or gastroenterologist to exclude structural disorders of the neck, mouth, pharynx, larynx, and oesophagus. 
  
 If a structural lesion is excluded and there are no obvious features of neurological disease further enquiry is needed. If a structural lesion is excluded and there are no obvious features of neurological disease further enquiry is needed.
 +Swallowing evaluation with videofluoroscopy 
 +in the paediatric population 
 +https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/64/5/569 
 +https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5240596/
 ~~REFNOTES~~ ~~REFNOTES~~
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